1 中华玉魂 1. The Soul of Chinese Jadeware

2 玉与美石
2. Jade and Beautiful Stones

3 古玉细说
3. Ancient Jadeware
4 趣味知识
4. Amusing Information

5 古玉之最
5. Records about Ancient Jadeware
6 珍品赏析
6. Masterpieces

7 互动空间
7. Interaction
1 中华玉魂（视频）The Soul of Chinese Jadeware (video)
画 面
Image 解 说 词
Commentary 备用图影资料
Pictures and Videos Available
世界地图；
中国地图+玉字——变化成国字
World Map:
Chinese Map + the character for ‘jade’—turning into the character for ‘country’

世界上使用玉器较著名的地区有中国、中美洲和新西兰等，但像中国这样起源悠久并持续发展的玉文化体系却是独一无二的。
玉，堪称中国这个古老国度的灵魂。
China, Central America and New Zealand are among the regions famous for the use of jade. However, the Chinese system of jade culture is unique for its early origin and continuous development.
Jade can be regarded as the soul of the ancient country of China.

三维制作“国”字；
中美洲和新西兰用玉情况可见光盘《探索发现1、2》
The character for ‘country’ with 3-D effect;
The use of jade in Central America and New Zealand can be found in the disc Exploration and Discovery 1, 2.
“金科玉律”
“金玉良言”
“金玉满堂”
“金枝玉叶”
“亭亭玉立”
“冰清玉洁”
“宁为玉碎，不为瓦全”
“化干戈为玉帛”
“玉容寂寞泪阑干，梨花一枝春带雨”
“我欲乘风归去，又恐琼楼玉宇，高处不胜寒”
Laws of gold and jade;
Words of gold and jade;
A houseful of gold and jade;
Golden branches and jade leaves;
Standing with jade-like grace;
To prefer broken jade to complete tiles;
To replace weapons with jade and silk;
Lonely tears on her jade-like face, like spring raindrops on pear blossoms;
Much as I long to fly to the heavens, I’m afraid that it might to be too cold in the towers and halls of jade

古代文献典籍中，处处可见“玉”的踪影。“玉”字作为美好事物的象征，被广泛地运用于词语中。诗文中以玉作形容和比喻更是无处不在。
The word ‘jade’ can be found everywhere in ancient literature. As a symbol of the good and the beautiful, the word is widely used in idioms. Furthermore, figures of speech involving jade are omnipresent in literary writings.

Baopuzi 古代宗教祭祀活动中，玉被用来敬奉天地山川、祖先鬼神。
玉还被认为具有辟邪护尸的功用，甚至被当成灵丹妙药，服之可以御疾，可以长生不老，得道成仙。
Jade was offered to the heaven and the earth, mountains and rivers, ancestors, spirits and gods in religious and sacrificial ceremonies.
It was also believed that jade was able to ward off evil spirits and keep corpses from decomposing. It was also taken as drugs for curing diseases and immortality. 鸟纹璧75182
福泉山琮75736
Bi with bird pattern 75182
Cong from Mt. Fuquan 75736

玉杂佩
Jade pendant set 玉在古代被尊奉、追慕，还有一个重要原因。即儒家提倡“君子比德于玉”，以玉的自然属性来比照出君子应该具有的高尚品德。
Another important reason for the prestige of jade was the Confucian idea that a gentleman should possess virtues that correspond to the natural attributes of jade.

 孔子图片
The portrait of Confucius

馆长寄语
Words from the curator 玉器自古就被中国人视为祥瑞的象征而倍受珍爱。中国玉器以其悠久的历史、深厚的内涵和广泛的影响，成为我国古老文化的重要标志之一。玉所凝聚的精神要义潜移默化地影响着我们中国人，培养了炎黄子孙的高尚情操。
In China, jade has been treasured as an auspicious symbol since ancient times. Chinese jade is one of the icons of its age-old culture for its long history, profound meanings and widespread influence. Principles attached to it have had deep influence on the nation and cultivated its noble mind.

奥运会会徽揭幕仪式
The unveiling of the Olympic Games emblem

玉文化历代传承，在当今中国人的心目中仍然占据着重要一席。
2003年8月3日晚，随着由和田玉雕刻的“奥运徽宝”徐徐抬起，2008年第29届奥运会会徽正式揭晓。从此，中国近万年的玉文化与走过112年的现代奥林匹克运动结缘。礼仪之邦的中国人继续向世人展现着他们如同美玉一般、温文儒雅而又真诚仁爱的东方气质。
The jade culture, which has been passed down through many generations, stills figures prominently in the national consciousness.
On the night of August 3, 2003, the emblem of the 29th Olympic Games of 2008, made of jade from Hetian, was unveiled. Thus, the Chinese jade culture, which is nearly 10,000 years old, is combined with the modern Olympics, which was started 112 years ago. As ‘the country of rites and ceremonies’, China continues to show the world its jade-like oriental qualities of gentleness, refinement, sincerity and benevolence. 光盘剪辑
Clips from videos

2 玉与美石 Jade and Beautiful Stones
1、什么是玉？What is jade?
有狭义和广义之分。
There are jade in the narrow sense and jade in the broad sense.
狭义的玉是指现代矿物学意义上真正的玉，即通常俗称的软玉（主要为新疆和田玉）和硬玉（主要为缅甸翡翠）。
Jade in the narrow sense is jade of mineralogical genuineness, or what are commonly known as soft jade (mainly from Hetian, Xinjiang) and hard jade (mainly emerald from Myanmar).
广义的玉是指东汉许慎《说文解字》中对玉的解释，即“石之美者”。除了软玉、硬玉外，还包括岫玉、南阳玉、水晶、玛瑙、绿松石、青金岩、珊瑚等一些美石。
Jade in the broad sense is ‘the beautiful among stones’, as defined in Shuowen Jiezi, an etymological book written by Xu Shen of the Eastern Han Dynasty. Besides soft and hard jade, it includes Xiu jade, Nanyang jade, crystal, agate, turquoise, lapis lazuli and coral.
这些各式各样的美丽玉石被形容为“白如割肪，黄如蒸栗，蓝如靛沫，绿如翠羽，赤如丹砂，紫如凝血，黑如墨光”，色彩缤纷，引人入胜。
These beautiful stones with enchanting colors are described as ‘white as sliced fat, yellow as steamed millet, blue as indigo, green as kingfisher’s feathers, red as cinnabar, purple as congealed blood, and black as ink’.

2、玉石的主要种类和特性；The major types of jade and their attributes
Ø 和田玉——通常所称的软玉。因产于中国新疆和田而Ø 得名Ø 。按色泽不同，Ø 可分白玉、青玉、青白玉、黄玉、墨玉、碧玉等品种，Ø 玻璃光泽至油脂光泽，Ø 半透明至不Ø 透明，Ø 温润莹透，Ø 坚硬致密，Ø 是古代玉器采用的主要材质。
Hetian jade, or soft jade as it is commonly known, is named after its origin in Hetian, Xinjiang. It can be classified by color into white jade, blue jade, bluish white jade, yellow jade, black jade and green jade. It varies between vitreous luster to greasy luster, and between translucence to opaqueness. Smooth, shining, hard and compact, it was a major material for ancient jadeware.
Ø 翡翠——通常所称的硬玉。主要产于缅甸，Ø 有红、绿、青、紫、蓝、黄、灰、白、黑等丰富的颜色，Ø 玻璃光泽至油脂光泽，Ø 半透明至不Ø 透明，Ø 质地坚硬。“翡”、“翠”原分别指Ø 一种红色和绿色羽毛的鸟，Ø 后用来指Ø 称硬玉。在中国，Ø 翡翠至清代中晚期后才逐渐流行。
Emerald, commonly known as hard jade, is mainly found in Myanmar. It can be red, green, purple, blue, yellow, gray, white or black. It is hard, and varies between vitreous luster to greasy luster, and between translucence to opaqueness. Its Chinese name, feicui, is the combination of fei, a kind of red bird, and cui, a kind of green bird. In China, it was not widely used until the mid and late Qing Dynasty.
Ø 岫（xiù）玉——又称岫岩玉，Ø 因产于中国辽宁岫岩而Ø 得名Ø 。颜色大多为绿色，Ø 包括黄绿、豆绿和墨绿等。蜡状光泽，Ø 透明至不Ø 透明，Ø 硬度较小。
Xiu jade, or Xiuyan jade, is named after its origin in Xiuyan in Liaoning, China. It is usually green, being yellowish green, pea green or blackish green, with a waxy luster. It varies between translucence to opaqueness, and is not hard.
Ø 南阳玉——又称独山玉，Ø 因产于中国河南南阳独山而Ø 得名Ø 。颜色复Ø 杂多变，Ø 常见有白色、绿色、蓝绿色、黄色、紫色、黑色等。玻璃光泽至蜡状光泽，Ø 半透明至不Ø 透明。
Nanyang jade, or Dushan jade, is named after its origin in Dushan in Nanyang, Henan, China. It comes in various colors, the most common of which are white, green, bluish green, yellow, purple and black. It varies between vitreous luster and waxy luster, and between translucence to opaqueness.
Ø 水晶——产地较广，Ø 颜色多样，Ø 依色泽不同，Ø 可分为无色水晶、紫晶、黄晶、烟晶、墨晶、芙蓉石等，Ø 内含针状包裹体者称为发晶。玻璃光泽，Ø 透明至半透明。
Crystal is found in many places and varies in color. It can be classified by color into colorless crystal, amethyst, topaz, smoky quartz, black quartz and rose quartz. The variety with needle-like objects inside is called hair crystal. It has vitreous luster, and varies between transparence to translucence.
Ø 玛瑙——产地较广，Ø 颜色多样，Ø 有红、蓝、绿、黑、白、灰、紫色等，Ø 通常具有环带状或条带状的构造。特殊的品种包括水胆玛瑙、缠丝玛瑙、苔藓玛瑙等。玻璃光泽，Ø 透明至半透明。
Agate is found in many places and varies in color. It can be red, blue, green, black, white, gray and purple. It usually has ring- or stripe-shaped structure. Special varieties include water agate, sardonyx and moss agate. It has vitreous luster and varies between transparence and translucence.
Ø 绿松石——古称“甸子”或“碧甸子”，Ø 主要产于中国湖北和古波斯，Ø 因多通过土耳其输往各国，Ø 也称“土耳其玉”或“突厥玉”。有天蓝、蓝绿、黄绿、淡绿等颜色，Ø 通常具有褐色至黑色的“铁线”。蜡状光泽，Ø 半透明至不Ø 透明。
Turquoise, called dianzi or green dianzi in ancient times, is mainly found in Hubei, China and ancient Persia. It is also known as Turkish jade because it was exported to various countries via Turkey. It can be azure, bluish green, yellowish green and light green. It usually has brown or black lines. It has waxy luster, and varies between translucence and opaqueness.
Ø 青金岩——主要产于阿富汗，Ø 颜色有天蓝、浅蓝、紫蓝和绿蓝色等，Ø 表面常含杂有星点状的黄铁矿。玻璃光泽，Ø 半透明至不Ø 透明。
Lapis lazuli is mainly found in Afghanistan. It can be azure, light blue, purplish blue or greenish blue. There is usually spots of pyrite on its surface. It has vitreous luster, and varies between translucence to opaqueness.
Ø 珊瑚——主要产于浅海水域，Ø 由低等腔肠动物珊瑚虫骨骼堆积而Ø 成，Ø 常呈树枝状产出，Ø 表面有自然的纵向纹理线。大多为白色、粉红色、橙色或红色。蜡状光泽至油脂光泽，Ø 半透明至不Ø 透明。
Coral, mainly found in shallow sea, is formed by the bones of coral, a lower coelenterate, and is usually in the shape of branches, with naturally formed lengthwise grain on the surface. It is usually white, pink, orange or red. It varies between waxy luster and greasy luster, and between translucence and opaqueness.
主要玉石特性一览表
The attribute of major types of jade
玉石名称
Name 主要矿物成分
Major mineral(s) 摩氏硬度
Mohs hardness 密度（克/厘米3）
Density (g/cm3) 折射率
Refractive index
和田玉
Hetian jade 透闪石
Tremolite 6~6.5 2.95~3.01 1.60~1.63
翡翠
Emerald 辉石
Pyroxene 6.5~7 3.30~3.36 1.66~1.68
岫玉
Xiu jade 蛇纹石
Serpentinite 2~7 2.4~2.8 1.56~1.57
南阳玉
Nanyang jade 斜长石、黝帘石
Plagioclase, zoisite 6~6.5 2.7~3.1 1.56~1.70
水晶
Crystal 单晶石英
Single-crystal quartz 7 2.65 1.54~1.55
玛瑙
Agate 隐晶质石英
Aphanitic quartz 6.5~7 2.58~2.65 1.53~1.54
绿松石
Turquoise 绿松石
Turquoise 5.5~6 2.76 1.62~1.67
青金岩
Lapis lazuli 青金石
Lapis lazuli 5~6 2.5~3.09 1.56~1.70
珊瑚
Coral 方解石，或文石
Calcite or aragonite 3~4 2.68 1.49~1.66


3 古玉细说 Ancient Jadeware
1. 古玉的主要品种 The major types
4 礼器 Ritual jadeware

玉璧——《周礼》：“以苍璧礼天。”也可用于符瑞、装饰、敛葬等。流行于新石器时代至清代。[良渚鸟纹75182]
Bi, as recorded in The Rites of Zhou, was used to pay homage to the heaven. It was also used for auspice, decoration and burial. It was widely used between the New Stone Age and the Qing Dynasty. [Bi with bird pattern from Liangzhu 75182]
玉琮（cóng）——分单节和多节，最多可达十几节。《周礼》：“以黄琮礼地。”也可用于敛葬等。主要流行于新石器时代至商周时期。[良渚福泉山75736]
Cong may have a single section, several sections or as many as more than ten sections. As recorded in The Rites of Zhou, yellow cong was used to pay homage to the earth. It was also used for burial. It was widely used between the New Stone Age and the Shang and Zhou Dynasties. [Mt. Fuquan in Liangzhu 75736]
玉圭（guī）——有平首、圆首、尖首等形制。《周礼》：“以青圭礼东方。”不同尺寸和色泽的圭还可以体现使用者的等级差别。或作符节，行使征守恤荒、和难聘女、治德修好、易行除恶等职能。主要流行于夏、商、周三代。 [夏54671]
Gui has a flat, round or pointed top. According to The Rites of Zhou, blue gui was used to pay homage to the east. The sizes and colors of gui indicate users’ statuses. It was also used as tally for military operations, disaster relief, betrothal and diplomacy. It was widely used in the Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties. [Xia 54671]
玉璋（zhāng）——有斜首、弧首等形制。《周礼》：“以赤璋礼南方。”也可体现等级差别，或作符节，以聘女、起军旅、治兵守等。主要流行于新石器时代至周代。[龙山文化11931]
Zhang has a slanting or curved top. According to The Rites of Zhou, red zhang was used to pay homage to the south. It could also indicate difference in status, or be used as tally for betrothal or military operations. It was widely used between the New Stone Age and the Zhou Dynasty. [Longshan Culture 11931]
玉册——通常由数块扁平长条玉片组成，上面书刻祭祀、盟誓、悼文、记史等文字，主要用在帝王祝告天地、宗庙或册封、哀悼等场合。主要流行于唐宋以后。[清71788]
Ce consists of several long, flat jade pieces on which are carved words for sacrifice, oath of alliance, eulogy or historical record. It was mainly used by the emperor at ceremonies of offering sacrifice to the heaven and earth, in the imperial ancestral temple, at ceremonies of conferring noble tiles, or at funerals. It was widely used in the Tang and Song Dynasties and later dynasties. [Qing 71788]
玉磬（qìng）——成套的玉磬称为编磬，十六面一组；单独的玉磬称为特磬。是在宫廷重大典礼演奏中和韶乐时使用的礼乐器。主要流行于清代。[清21775]
Qing (chime stone): A set of jade qing, sixteen in a group, is called bianqing. A single qing is called teqing. It was a ritual musical instrument used to play the Shao music at important ceremonies at court. It was widely used in the Qing Dynasty. [Qing 21775]
玉带——通常由十几件扁平的长方形玉片组成一套，围系于腰上。在使用上有着严格的等级规定，唐宋时只有三品以上的官员才能使用，明代则限于一品和特赐。始见于北周，主要流行于唐至明代。[唐乐伎75619]
A jade-studded belt usually has more than ten flat rectangular jade chips and was worn on the waist. There were strict hierarchical rules on its use. It could only be used by officials of the third rank and above in the Tang and Song Dynasties, and in the Ming Dynasty its use was confined to officials of the first rank and those who received it from the emperor. First appearing in the Northern Zhou Dynasty, jade belts were widely used from the Tang Dynasty to the Ming Dynasty. [Tang musician 75619]

2 仪仗器 Ceremonial weapons

玉斧——背上有孔，可用于与执柄缚扎。主要流行于新石器时代至商代。[75733]
Jade ax, with a hole in the back, could be tied to a handle. It was widely used between the New Stone Age and the Shang Dynasty. [75733]
玉戚——形同斧，两侧有齿牙。主要流行于新石器时代至商代。[商兽面纹25543]
Jade qi, shaped like an ax, has teeth on both sides. It was widely used between the New Stone Age and the Shang Dynasty. [Qi with beast mask pattern of the Shang Dynasty 25543]
玉钺（yuè）——形同斧，刃较斧宽。主要流行于新石器时代至商代。[良渚75489]
Jade yue, shaped like an ax, has a broader edge than the latter. It was widely used between the New Stone Age and the Shang Dynasty. [Liangzhu 75489]
玉戈——内上有孔，可用于与执柄缚扎。主要流行于新石器时代至周代。 [商嵌绿松石1136] （图片上标明“援”和“内”）
Jade ge, with a hole in the lower part, could be tied to a handle. It was widely used between the New Stone Age and the Zhou Dynasty. [Turquoise-inlaid ge of the Shang Dynasty 1136] (with yuan (the blade) and nei (the lower part) indicated)
多孔玉刀——背上有二至七孔，可用于与执柄缚扎。主要流行于新石器时代至夏代。[齐家54648]
Multi-hole jade sword, with two to seven holes in the back, could be tied to a handle. It was widely used between the New Stone Age and the Xia Dynasty. [Qijia 54648]
3 佩饰器 Personal ornaments

玉玦（jué）——一般用作耳饰。主要流行于新石器时代至周代。 [春秋44274、44275]
Jue was usually used to decorate the ear. It was widely used between the new Stone Age and the Zhou Dynasty. [The Spring and Autumn Period 44274m 44275]
玉璜（huáng）——最初用作项饰，后成为杂佩的重要组件之一。主要流行于新石器时代至汉代。[战国双龙首璜62511]
Huang, originally used to decorate the neck, became one of the major components of a jade pendant set. It was widely used between the New Stone Age and the Han Dynasty. [Huang with double dragon heads of the Warring States Period 62511]
玉环——杂佩的重要组件之一，也用作符瑞等。流行于新石器时代至清代。 [唐龙纹36062]
Jade ring was one of the major components of a jade pendant set and was also used for auspice. It was widely used between the New Stone Age and the Qing Dynasty. [Ring with dragon motif of the Tang Dynasty 36062]
玉镯——流行于新石器时代至清代。[明71762]
Jade bracelet was widely used between the New Stone Age and the Qing Dynasty. [Ming 71762]
玉觿（xī）——最初是解结的工具，后成为杂佩的组件之一。主要流行于新石器时代至汉代。[48356]
Xi, originally a tool for untying knots, became one of the components of a jade pendant set. It was widely used between the New Stone Age and the Han Dynasty. [48356]
玉韘（shè）——又名射决，俗称扳指，是套于拇指上用于勾弦的器具，后蜕变为纯粹的装饰品。《诗•卫风•芄兰》：“芄（wán）兰之叶，童子佩韘。”主要流行于商、周和清代。 [西汉35323、清10488]
She, also called shejue, commonly known as banzhi (thumb ring), was worn on the thumb for pulling the string of a bow, and became purely ornamental. It is mentioned in The Book of Songs, the first Chinese anthology of poetry. It was widely used in the Shang and Zhou Dynasties and the Qing Dynasty. [The Western Han Dynasty 35323, the Qing Dynasty 10488]
韘（shè）形玉佩——俗称鸡心佩，由玉韘演变而来，成为“能射御者佩韘”的象征物。主要流行于汉代。[34621]
She-shaped jade pendant, commonly known as chicken hart pendant, evolved from jade she and was symbolic of capability in archery. It was widely used in the Han Dynasty. [34621]
玉刚卯——又称欬（kài）改、射魃（bá）、大坚。四面铭文曰：“正月刚卯（既央），灵殳四方。赤青白黄，四色是当。帝令祝融，以教夔龙。庶疫刚瘅，莫我敢当。” 用于辟邪护身。主要流行于汉代。[刚卯19623]
Gangmao is called kaigai, sheba or dajian. There is an inscription around it. It was used as talisman in the Han Dynasty. [Gangmao 19623]
玉严卯——形同刚卯。四面铭文曰：“疾日严卯，帝令夔化。慎尔周伏，化兹灵殳。既正既直，既觚既方。庶疫刚瘅，莫我敢当。”用于辟邪护身。主要流行于汉代。[严卯19624]
Yanmao is in the same shaped as gangmao, with an inscription around it. It was used as talisman in the Han Dynasty. [Yanmao 19624]
玉翁仲——翁仲原为人名，相传勇猛无比，佩之用于辟邪护身。主要流行于汉代。[27345]
Wenzhong: Wenzhong is the name of legendary man with unparalleled valor. Jade pendants named Wenzhong were worn as talismans in the Han Dynasty. [27345]
玉司南佩——仿指南勺形，但不具实用价值，而是用于辟邪压胜。主要流行于汉代。[《中国玉器全集》4，P188下左]
Jade sinan pendant, in the shape of the spoon on sinan (Chinese compass), was used as talisman in the Han Dynasty. [A Complete Collection of Chinese Jadeware 4, p.118, lower left]
玉剑饰——玉具剑上的装饰，一套齐全的饰件包括剑首[25530]、剑格[27874]、剑璏（wèi）[25445 ]、剑珌（bì）[27329]四件。主要流行于周代、两汉。
Ornaments on a jade sword: a complete set consists of four ornaments—the head (shou) [25530], the guard (ge) [27874], the nose (wei) [25445] and the sheath ornament (bi) [27329]. There were widely used in the Zhou Dynasty and the Han Dynasty.
玉杂佩——由数件或数十件玉器串连成组的佩饰，组件可包括玉璧、玉环、玉璜、
玉觿（xī）、玉韘（shè）、玉珠、玉、玉动物、玉人物等。主要流行于商、周、两汉。[《中国出土玉器全集（11）》]
Jade pendant set: this may consist of a few or dozens of jade pendants stringed together, which may include bi，jade ring, huang, xi, she, jade beads, jade …, jade animal, and jade figure. Jade pendant sets were widely used in the Shang, Zhou and Han Dynasties.
4 丧葬器 Funerary objects

玉衣——又称“玉柙（xiá）”或“玉匣”，由数千小玉片与金缕、银缕、铜缕等
穿结而成，分别称为金缕玉衣、银缕玉衣、铜缕玉衣等，是皇帝和高级
贵族死后专用的敛服。玉衣使用有着明确的等级规定。据《后汉书•礼
仪志》记载：皇帝使用金缕玉衣；诸侯王、列侯始封、贵人、公主
使用银缕玉衣；大贵人、长公主使用铜缕玉衣。主要流行于两汉。[《大
汉楚王》P308或《中国出土玉器全集（1）》P198]
Jade garment, also called ‘jade case’, consists of thousands of jade chips sewn together with gold, silver or copper wires. It was put on the corpse of the emperor or a senior noble after his death, and there were strict hierarchical rules on its use. According to the chapter on rites and etiquettes in The History of the Later Han Dynasty, jade garment sewn with gold wires was for the emperor, that with silver wires was for a feudal lord, a noble of the liehou or guiren rank, or a princess, and that with copper wires was for a daguiren or the emperor’s sister. Such garments were used in the Han Dynasty. [Lord Chu of the Han Dynasty, p. 308, or A Complete Collection of Unearthed Chinese Jadeware (1), p. 198]
玉琀（hán）——含于死者口中的玉器。先秦玉琀品种多样，汉代以蝉形玉琀最具代表性。主要流行于新石器时代至汉代。[东汉蝉形65316]
Han is jadeware put in the mouth of a dead body. Han of the pre-Qin period is diverse, while han of the Han Dynasty is typically in the shape of the cicada. Han was widely used between the New Stone Age and the Han Dynasty. [Cicada-shaped han of the Eastern Han Dynasty 65316]
玉握——握于死者手中的玉器。先秦玉握品种多样，汉代以成对的猪形玉握最具代表性。主要流行于周、汉两代。 [东汉27921]
Wo is jadeware put in the hands of a dead body. Pre-Qin wo is diverse, while the typical wo of the Han Dynasty consists of a pair of pig-shaped jade. Wo was widely used in the Zhou and Han Dynasties. [The Eastern Han Dynasty 27921]
玉九窍塞——用于填塞或遮盖死者身体九窍的玉器，包括眼盖、鼻塞、口琀（hán）、耳瑱（tiàn）、阴塞等。是“金玉在九窍，则死人为不朽”观念的反映。主要流行于两汉时期。[《中国古玉器图典》七窍塞P270]
Jade orifice plugs were put in the orifices of a dead body such as the eyes, the nostrils, the mouth, the ears and the genitals, reflecting the idea that jade and gold in all the orifices of a body could keep it from decomposing. They were widely used in the Han Dynasty. [Pictures of Ancient Chinese Jadeware, jade orifice plugs, p. 270]

5 实用器 Practical objects

玉簪——古人绾发或固冠于发的用具。流行于新石器时代至清代。 [明65343]
Jade hairpin was used to coil up hair or fix a hat to it. It was widely used between the New Stone Age and the Qing Dynasty. [Ming 65343]
玉扁方——贵族妇女的发饰。主要流行于清代。[清17025]
Jade bianfang was head ornament for noble women. It was widely used in the Qing Dynasty. [Qing 17025]
玉冠——贵族男子的发饰，与玉簪配合使用。主要流行于明代。[明73840]
Jade hat, used together with jade hairpin, was hair ornament for noble men. It was widely used in the Ming Dynasty. [Ming 73840]
玉梳——用于梳理头发或插于发髻之上作装饰。多见于商代。[1137]唐、五代时还常见一种嵌于梳齿上的玉片，称玉梳背。[唐花卉纹梳背26322]
Jade comb was used to comb hair or put in it as an ornament. Most jade combs date to the Shang Dynasty. [1137] The Tang Dynasty and the Five Dynasties saw the wide use of jade pieces called jade comb back, which were fixed to the teeth of a comb. [Comb back with floral design of the Tang Dynasty 26322]
玉带钩——有琵琶形、螳螂形、长条形等形制，用于钩束腰带。流行于新石器时代至清代。[66910 ] （图片上标明“钩首、钩身和钩钮”三部分）
Jade belt hook, in the shape of pipa (guitar-like Chinese musical instrument), mantis or stick, was used to fix a waistbelt. It was widely used between the New Stone Age and the Qing Dynasty. [66910] (with the head, body and knob indicated in the picture)
玉带扣——由钩体和被钩体二部分组成，用于钩束腰带。始见于汉代，主要流行
于明清时期。[ 75729 ]
Jade belt buckle, which consists of two parts, was used to fix a belt. It first appeared in the Han Dynasty and was widely used in the Ming and Qing Dynasties. (75729)
玉文具——各种文房用具，如笔筒[清25403]、笔架[《故宫》（下）P195]、笔洗[清17023]、墨床[明74058]、砚[73949 ]、砚滴[明花卉73826]、水盂[清17204]、臂搁[《故宫》（下）P193]、镇纸[清73939]、印章[《故宫》（下）P222]、印盒[明73820]等。主要流行于宋代以后。
Jade stationery, such as inkpot [Qing 25403], writing brush holder [The Forbidden City (II) p. 195], vessel for washing writing brush [Qing 17023], ink holder [Ming 74058], inkstone [73949], yandi (small pot for dripping water on an inkstone) [yandi with floral design of the Ming Dynasty 73826], water bowl [Qing 17204], arm rest [The Forbidden City (II), p. 193], paperweight [Qing 73939], seal [The Forbidden City (II), p. 222], and seal box [Ming 73820]. Jade stationery was widely used in the Song Dynasty and later dynasties.
玉器皿——各种日常生活用具，如碗[明74254]、杯[清22972]、羽觞（shāng）[《中国出土玉器全集（6）》P166]、壶[ 74298 ]、盘[12048 ]、盒[清14683]、香筒[清74289]、花熏[47748]、花插[清《故宫》（下）P17122973] 、玉鼻烟壶[16970 ]等。主要流行于商代至清代。
Jade vessels for daily use, such as bowl [Ming 74254], cup [Qing 22972], yushang [A Complete Collection of Unearthed Chinese Jadeware (6), p.166], pot [74298 ], plate [12048], box [Qing 14683], incense pot [Qing 74289], jade vessel for perfume (huaxun) [47748], flower holder [Qing 22973, The Forbidden City (II), p. 171], and jade snuff bottle [16970]. Jade vessels were widely used between the Shang Dynasty and the Qing Dynasty.

6 陈设器
Objects on display
玉摆件——品种广泛，以人物、走兽、禽鸟、瓜果等多见。主要流行于宋代以后。 [清三羊22971]
Jade ornaments, which are diverse, are usually in the shape of figures, beasts, birds and fruits. They were popular in the Song Dynasty and later dynasties. [Three-sheep ornament of the Qing Dynasty 22971]
玉仿古彝器——仿照商周青铜器等的造型、花纹而制作的玉器，如爵[明74291]、
[《故宫》（下）P187]、匜（yí）[清74296]、卮（zhī）、觥（gōng）[《故宫》（下）P171]、簋（guǐ）[明64650]、瓶[清24133]、尊[明73846]、觚（gū）[清74288]、卣（yǒu）、炉[清35896]、鼎[清35876]等。宋代至清代流行。
Jade vessels modeled in shape and decoration on bronze vessels of the Shang and Zhou Dynasties, such as jue [Ming 74291] [The Forbidden City (II), p.187], yi [Qing 74296], zhi, gong [The Forbidden City (II), p.171], gui [Ming 64650], vase [Qing 24133], zun [Ming 73846], gu [Qing 74288], you, censer [Qing 35896], and ding [Qing 35876]. Such vessels were popular between the Song and the Qing Dynasties.
玉插屏——又称桌屏或砚屏。平面片状，下有插座。主要流行于清代。[75183]
Jade table screen, a flat piece of jade with a stand, was popular in the Qing Dynasty. [75183]
玉如意——分单柄、二镶、三镶如意等。从搔痒器具演变而来，可作馈赠或摆饰之用。清代十分流行。[清福禄寿如意7176、74270]
Jade ruyi, which evolved from an instrument for scratching itch, may have one, two or three handles. It was very popular as gift or ornament in the Qing Dynasty. [Ruyi of good luck, wealth and longevity of the Qing Dynasty, 7176, 74270]
玉山子——随玉材天然形状琢出如山之造型，多表现山水人物或历史故事，犹如
立体的绘画。大小不一，重者可达万斤。清代十分流行。[清九老46779]
Jade shanzi, carved into a mountain based on its natural shape, usually shows people in landscape or historical stories like a three-dimensional picture. Such ornaments vary in size, and the heaviest can weigh 5,000 kilograms. They were very popular in the Qing Dynasty. [Nine-dragon shanzi of the Qing Dynasty 46779]

2. 常见的古玉纹饰 Common decorations on ancient jadeware
1 几何纹
Geometric patterns
弦纹——象弓弦的平行直线，主要流行于新石器时代至汉代。[战国65080]
String pattern, which consists of parallel straight lines that look like bow strings, was widely used between the New Stone Age and the Han Dynasty. [The Warring States Period, 65080]
云纹——象云朵的形状，主要流行于新石器时代至汉代。[西汉云纹环52721]
Cloud pattern, which resembles clouds, was widely used between the New Stone Age and the Han Dynasty. [Ring with cloud pattern of the Western Han Dynasty, 52721]
绳纹——或称绳索纹、绞丝纹，主要流行于东周、西汉。[27849]
Cord pattern was widely used in the Eastern Zhou Dynasty and the Western Han Dynasty. [27849]
谷纹——象谷粒发芽的形状，主要流行于战国、西汉。[27847]
Grain pattern, which looks like sprouting grains, was widely used in the Warring States Period and the Western Han Dynasty. [27847]
蒲纹——象蒲席交错编织的形状，主要流行于战国、西汉。[27946]
Cattail pattern, which looks like a cattail mat, was widely used in the Warring States Period and the Western Han Dynasty. [27946]
勾连云纹——相互用直线连接起来的云纹，主要流行于战国、西汉。[73731]
Linked cloud pattern, which consists of clouds linked with straight lines, was widely used in the Warring States Period and the Western Han Dynasty. [73731]
乳钉纹——象圆凸钉帽的形状，主要流行于东汉、明代。[明乳丁纹簋（guǐ）64650]
Nail pattern, which looks like round, convex nail heads, was widely used in the Eastern Han Dynasty and the Ming Dynasty. [Gui with nail pattern of the Ming Dynasty, 64650]\

2 动物纹
Animals
兽面纹——也称饕餮（tāo tiē）纹，是以动物头部正面形象为主的一种抽象变形的纹饰。流行于新石器时代至清代。 [良渚75736]
Beast mask motif, also called glutton motif, is an abstract motif showing the stylized front of an animal head. It was widely used between the New Stone Age and the Qing Dynasty. [Liangzhu 75736]
龙纹——古代传说中的神物，是古代帝王神圣、权威和尊贵的标志。流行于新石器时代至清代。[明
Dragon motif, which represents a legendary divine animal, was symbolic of imperial sacredness, authority and prestige. It was widely used between the New Stone Age and the Qing Dynasty. [Ming 75736]
螭（chī）纹——古代传说中的神物，因常呈盘曲蜿蜒或攀援匍匐状，故俗称蟠螭。主要流行于战国至清代。[明75728]
Chi motif represents a legendary animal that is usually coiled. It was widely used between the Warring States Period and the Qing Dynasty. [Ming 75728]
凤纹——古代传说中的神物，为百鸟之首，常与龙纹共同出现，象征后、帝。流行于新石器时代至清代。[唐25562]
Phoenix motif represents a legendary bird that was considered the king of birds. As the symbol of the empress, it often appeared together with the dragon motif, the symbol of the emperor. It was widely used between the New Stone Age and the Qing Dynasty. [Tang 25562]
鹰纹——又称鸷鸟。流行于新石器时代至清代。[71777]
Hawk motif was widely used between the New Stone Age and the Qing Dynasty. [71777]
寿带纹——又称绶带、练鹊，有长寿之意。主要流行于宋代以后。[明74362]
Longevity belt pattern implies wish for a long life. It was widely used in the Song Dynasty and the later dynasties. [Ming 74362]
仙鹤纹——传为仙禽，有“鹤寿千年”之说。后常作为一品文官的服饰标志。主要流行于宋代以后。[宋74003]。
Crane motif, which represents the kind of bird said to have a lifespan of a thousand years, was put on official robes as the symbol of the highest rank. It was widely used in the Song Dynasty and later dynasties. [Song 74003]
鹭鸶（lù sī）纹——常与莲花组成吉祥图案，也是六品文官的服饰标志。主要流行于宋代以后。[元74076]
Egret motif, which often combines with the lotus to form an auspicious image, was put on official robes as the symbol of the sixth rank. It was widely used in the Song Dynasty and later dynasties. [Yuan 74076]
鸳鸯纹——雌雄成双结对，偶居不离，象征夫妻恩爱，永不分离。主要流行于明清时期。[明74056]。
Mandarin duck motif, which symbolizes the eternal love between husband and wife, was widely used in the Ming and Qing Dynasties. [Ming 74056]
蝉纹——古人认为蝉餐风饮露，不食人间烟火，是品质高洁的象征。流行于新石器时代至清代。[东汉65316]
Cicada motif, which was considered to be symbolic of noble character, was widely used between the New Stone Age and the Qing Dynasty. [The Eastern Han Dynasty 65316]
蝴蝶纹——常用来表示美好的爱情和完满的婚姻。主要流行于五代以后。[清17067]
Butterfly motif, often used to signify love and happy marriage, began to be widely used in the Five Dynasties. [Qing 17067]
蝙蝠纹——“蝠”与“福”同音，常用来寓意幸福。主要流行于明清时期[清23919]。
Bat motif, often used to signify happiness, was widely used in the Ming and Qing Dynasties. [Qing 23919]
鱼纹——“鱼”与“余”同音，有年年有余、富裕之意。流行于新石器时代至清代。[元74040]
Fish motif, which signified wealth, was widely used between the New Stone Age and the Qing Dynasty. [Yuan 74040]
龟纹——常与莲花、祥云等组成图案。始见于新石器时代，宋、元代较为流行
[元74798 ]。
Turtle motif, often combined with lotuses and auspicious clouds, appeared in the New Stone Age and was widely used in the Song and Yuan Dynasties. [Yuan 74798]
鹿纹——“鹿”与“禄”同音，有官禄之意，又为长寿之仙兽。始见于商代，主要流行于唐宋以后。[明74097]
Deer motif, which signified wealth from civil service and longevity, appeared in the Shang Dynasty and began to be widely used in the Tang and Song Dynasties. [Ming 74097]
象纹——“象”与“祥”谐音，有吉祥之意。始见于商代，主要流行于唐宋以后。
[宋75089]
Elephant motif, which signified good luck, appeared in the Shang Dynasty and began to be widely used in the Tang and Song Dynasties. [Song 75089]
狮纹——佛教中的守护者，又为文殊菩萨的坐骑。民间有狮子滚绣球，为喜庆的象征。主要流行于唐宋以后。 [唐61466]
Lion motif, which is a guardian and Manjusri's personal mount in Buddhism and, with a ball under its feet, a symbol of festivity in folk custom, began to be widely used in the Tang and Song Dynasties. [Tang 61466]
虎纹——古代四方神之一，有兽中之王之称，传能驱妖辟邪。主要流行于汉代以后。[金74090]
Tiger motif, one of the gods of the four directions, was regarded as the king of animals, with the ability to ward off evil spirits. It began to be widely used in the Han Dynasty. [Jin 740